Exod 23,20-33 and the "War of YHWH"

Ever since historical-critical research has been done on the "Book of the Covenant" (Exod 20,22–23,19), the epilogue of this legal corpus (23,20-33) has been given special attention. Making use of literary criteria (Numeruswechsel, doublets and contradictions), the origin of this pericope has been considered very complex¹. Moreover, almost every scholar who has analysed the passage has indicated its relationship with the book of Deuteronomy and the so-called Deuteronomistic literature². In this context and since the beginning of the 20th century, important parts of Exod 23,20-33 have been commonly characterised as dependent on Deuteronom(ist)ic literature³. Likewise, several scholars have even considered the entire pericope to be composed by a so-called (post-)Deuteronomistic redactor/ author/compositor of the Tetrateuch⁴.

An investigation of the arguments which these hypotheses give on behalf of the Deuteronomistic character of Exod 23,20-33*, however, — when ьberhaupt arguments are given, since the Deuteronomistic origin of the pericope is taken often for granted — immediately reveals their fragility. The main part of the argumentation usually consists of an enumeration of words, expressions or theological concepts, referring to some, more or less parallel passages in Deuteronomistic literature. Occasionally, some stylistic elements in Exod 23,20-33 are characterised to be Deuteronomistic, assuming, however, that paraenesis is an exclusively Deuteronom(ist)ic feature⁵.

Reacting against this overly rash characterisation of Exod 23,20-33 as Deuteronomistic, scholars like C. Brekelmans have contended that the pericope in fact represents a preliminary stage in the development of what are generally accepted to be typical Deuteronomic language, style and theological concepts⁶. Against this background, the epilogue of the "Book of the Covenant" has been characterised as "proto-Deuteronomic". Since then, a scholarly discussion about the Deuteronomistic components of Exod 23,20-33 has become much more prominent in Pentateucal research⁷.

Within the debate on the Deuteronomistic origin of Exod 23,20-33*, the discussion about recovering an independent tradition of the "war of YHWH" has played an important role. In this respect, several items are referred to as indicative of this tradition. As such, the use of the terms xl#$ (v. 20)⁸, Kl)m (vv. 20.23)⁹, ynpl Klh (v. 23)¹⁰, hmy) (v. 27)¹¹, Mmh (v. 27)¹², Pr( Ntn(v. 28) ¹³, h(rc (v. 28)¹⁴, #$rg (vv. 28-31)¹⁵ and dyb Ntn (v. 31)¹⁶ is referred to as characteristic of the YHWH-war tradition. According to some scholars, the elements related to this tradition clearly demonstrate the antiquity, i.c. the proto-Deuteronomic character, of the pericope¹⁷. To others, however, pointing to the similarities with Deuteronom(ist)ic literature, several of these elements are peculiar to the Deuteronomistic cycles¹⁸.

In reaction against the tendency to characterise Tetrateuch texts as dependent on Deuteronom(ist)ic literature, simply because of similarities of some disparate words, I have accentuated the importance of compositional schemes in order to determine the relationship of a passage in Genesis–Numbers and Deuteronom(ist)ic literature¹⁹. Although much attention has been paid to the vocabulary of Exod 23,20-33 in the past, as far as I am aware, only J. Halbe has dealt with the presence of a compositional pattern within this pericope²⁰. Against the background of his analysis of Exod 34,11-26, he points to the syntactical scheme "Interjektion" – "Feststellungssatz" – "Imperativ", that is often used in the Old Testament and that can likewise be found in the first verses of Exod 23,20-33²¹.

The relationship between Exod 23 and a more encompassing compositional pattern which plays an important role within Deuteronomistic literature, can be clarified by examining the aforementioned terminology of the "war of YHWH". In a preliminary phase, however, attention will be paid to this stereotypical scheme within Deuteronomistic literature.

2. The Scheme of the "War of YHWH" in Exod 14; Josh 10; Judg 4; 1 Sam 7

It has been convincingly demonstrated by W. Richter, P. Weimar and M. Vervenne, that the narratives of the crossing of the Sea in Exod 13–14, the taking possession of the South in Josh 10, Deborah and Barak"s victory on Sisera in Judg 4 and Israel"s triumph against the Philistines in 1 Sam 7, are closely related to each other²². In all these pericopes not only does the motif of the "war of YHWH" play an important role, but a similar compositional pattern can be found as well. Although these four texts are not entirely identical²³, the scheme according to which they are composed is remarkable: threat – speech or complaint – action of YHWH.

According to Vervenne, the pattern that Exod 14, Josh 10, Judg 4 and 1 Sam 7 have in common, can be sketched as follows²⁴:

	Exod 14	Josh 10	Judg 4	1 Sam 7
1. Israel"s action yk dgwh      yk (m#$	5ab	1a	12a	7a
The enemy"s reaction	5c-10c	5	13	7b
2. Fear	10d	2	–	7c
3. Encouragment Reassurance Exhortation to fight Complaint – result	13-14 11-12	8 14		8-9
4. YHWH"s action	24c	10a	15	10
5. The enemy"s defeat Israel"s action hsk lpn Pdr Result: r)#$n )l description	28c	10bd 10c 11	16b 16a 16c	11c 11b 13-14

In Vervenne"s view, there can be no doubt that the similarities between Exod 14, Josh 10, Judg 4 and 1 Sam 7 are caused by a literary relationship²⁵. Referring to K.A.D. Smelik, who states that it is more plausible to speak about the literary genius of the Israelites in the seventh and sixth century B.C. than about a great historian of the tenth century²⁶, Vervenne disagrees with Weimar, who dates the origin of this "war of YHWH" scheme in the early monarchy²⁷. According to Vervenne, the pattern is characteristic of Deuteronomistic literature²⁸. He, however, also points to a fundamental difference between Exod 14 on the one hand, and Josh 10, Judg 4 and 1 Sam 7 on the other. Although it is indicated in the Sea Narrative, parallel to the latter texts, that YHWH will fight on Israel"s side, Israel"s active involvement is never stated explicitly. In Vervenne"s view, the particular version of the "war-story" as it is found in Exod 14* fits best after the fall of the Northern Kingdom in 722 B.C, since it contains a strong appeal to trust in YHWH alone²⁹. As a result, the absence of the typical feature that Israel itself, as an allied force, takes part in the war, would, according to Vervenne, be an indication in favour of the proto-Deuteronomic character of Exod 14*³⁰.

Foregoing the question whether the origin of the scheme of the "war of YHWH" is (proto-)Deuteronom(ist)ic or whether it is much older, in the following part of this contribution I will indicate that some crucial elements of this compositional structure can also be found in Exod 23,20-33, a text which, as already indicated, is often brought into relationship with a Deuteronom(ist)ic reworking of Genesis–Numbers.

2. The Scheme of the "War of YHWH" in Exod 23,20-33

At least three important elements of the aforementioned scheme occur in Exod 23,20-33, a divine speech in which YHWH announces the taking possession of the Promised Land: (a) YHWH will cause confusion within the enemy"s camp (v. 27: Mmh); (b) the enemies will "turn their backs" to the Israelites (v. 27: Pr( Ntn); (c) YHWH will hand over the inhabitants of the land to the Israelites (v. 31: dyb Ntn).

(a) Analogous to the pattern of YHWH"s war in Exod 14, Josh 10, Judg 4 and 1 Sam 7, it is said in Exod 23,27 that YHWH will throw into confusion each people that Israel fights against (M(h lk t) ytmhw)³¹. The vocabulary used is identical with Exod 14,24, Josh 10,10, Judg 4,15 and 1 Sam 7,10. In all these passages, the term Mmh occurs. This is so particularly significant, since the verb Mmh is not frequently used in the Hebrew Bible. With YHWH as subject, as it is the case in Exod 23,27, it is only found in the aforesaid verses and in Ps 18,15 (= 2 Sam 22,15); 144,6; 2 Chr 15,6. Contrary to the latter verse, the two former passages undoubtedly function within the context of YHWH-war.

(b) Taking into account the context of the term Mmh in Exod 23,27, the expression dyb Ntn also points in the direction of a relationship between Exod 23 and the (Deuteronomisitic) scheme of the war of YHWH, since the formula plays a role in Josh 10 and Judg 4³². In this respect, however, it is important to note that this expression often occurs troughout the Hebrew Bible to denote that YHWH does or does not deliver the enemies to Israel³³ or vice versa³⁴. Moreover, in a profane context, the expression can mean "entrust"³⁵, "put something at someone"s disposal"³⁶, or — often in a military context — "deliver"³⁷. Although the utterance is almost exclusively found within Deuteronomistic literature with YHWH as subject and the enemies of Israel as object, it seems, however, to be the most appropriate Hebrew expression in order to render the idea of handing over.

(c) Besides Mmh and dyb Ntn, the motif of the flight of the enemies (v. 31: Pr( Ntn) fits very well into the line of thought that is developed in the scheme of YHWH"s war, although it cannot be found literally in Exod 14, Josh 10, Judg 4 and 1 Sam 7. In the Sea Narrative, the Israelites are first fleeing from the Egyptians. Afterwards, when the Israelites have crossed the Sea and the Egyptians are pursuing them, they do not even have any opportunity to flee. Notwithstanding the fact that the expression Pr( Ntn is not used in Josh 10,10, Judg 4,16 and 1 Sam 7,11, the activity of the flight is clearly suggested in these passages by making use of the verb Pdr.

Contrary to the expression dyb Ntn, which plays an important role in Deuteronomy and Deuteronomistic History, the formula Pr( Ntn only occurs in Exod 23,27 and Ps 18,41 (= 2 Sam 22,41)³⁸. Within the Deuteronomistic canon³⁹, however, the noun Pr( is frequently used⁴⁰. With the exception of Josh 7,8.12, 2 Sam 22,41 and Jer 32,33, in which Pr( has the connotation "to turn away from", Pr( often is linked with the term h#$q⁴¹, thus referring to Israel"s obstinacy. In Jer 32,33, the expression is applied to the inhabitants of Judah, who turned away from YHWH (Pr( hnp). Josh 7,8 (Pr( Kph) and 7,12 (Pr( hnp) deal with Israel, taking refuge in order to be saved from hostile peoples. In these passages, the ones who are running away are at the same time the subject of the verb that accompanies the term. In Exod 23,27, however, YHWH is responsible for the flight of Israel"s enemies.

In short, although Exod 23, Josh 10, Judg 4 and 1 Sam 7 have the theme of the flight of Israel"s enemies in a context of YHWH-war in common, Exod 23,27 takes a special place in this series of texts because of the particular use of the term Pr(. Outside Exod 23,27, the expression Pr( Ntn only occurs in the psalm in 2 Sam 22,41 (= Ps 18,41). Because of the special character of 2 Sam 22, it is questionable whether the expression can be characterised as Deuteronom(ist)ic⁴². Moreover, in 2 Sam 22,41b, its meaning is different, since this verse does not deal with the expulsion of an enemy, but with their destruction⁴³.

Taking these elements together, one can conclude that, although Exod 23,20-33 resembles the scheme of YHWH-war as it can be found in Exod 14, Josh 10, Judg 4 and 1 Sam 7, it at the same time differs from it on significant points. First, contrary to these pericopes, in which a battle between Israel and the hostile nations is narrated, the aforementioned elements reflecting the war of YHWH scheme in Exod 23,20-33 all are part of a divine command. Secondly, the specific scheme that structures the narratives of Exod 14, Josh 10, Judg 4 and 1 Sam 7 is entirely absent from Exod 23, since only some, nevertheless very important, fragments of it can be found in the latter pericope. Thirdly, parallel to Exod 14, the Israelites do not have to take part in the war against the foreign peoples, unless v. 24 is taken into consideration. Moreover, because of the fact that dyb Ntn is not characteristic to the scheme and Pr( Ntn is absent from it, it seems doubtful whether the author(s) of Exod 23 can be considered to be literarily dependent on the more or less stereotypical scheme that can be found in Exod 14, Josh 10, Judg 4 and 1 Sam 7. Probably, the compositor(s) of the epilogue of the "Book of the Covenant" would have applied it more rigorously to his/their own composition. As such, even if the loose combination of elements from the scheme in Exod 23 can be seen either as an early preamble to the (Deuteronomistic) pattern or as a late imitation of it⁴⁴, in my view, there is more evidence to consider both Exod 23 on the one hand, and Exod 14, Josh 10, Judg 4 and 1 Sam 7 on the other as separate witnesses of a tradition about the war of YHWH⁴⁵.

Against this background, it is interesting to recall the other elements scholars have brought into relation with the tradition about the "war of YHWH" within Exod 23,20-33. These, however, do not play a role in the (Deuteronomistic) scheme. Moreover, none of these elements points to a dependency on Deuteronomistic literature. There are no good reasons to consider the K)lm (vv. 20.23), leading the Israelites into the Promised land, to be a typical Deuteronom(ist)ic theme⁴⁶. Within the Deuteronomistic canon, it only occurs in Judg 2,1-5, a passage that, in my view, is a summary of several traditions about the Exodus and the journey through the desert⁴⁷. The construction ynpl Klh (v. 23), with a divine messenger as subject, only occurs in the book of Exodus (Exod 14,19; 23,23; 32,34)⁴⁸. Within the Deuteronomistic canon, the noun hmy) (v. 27) is only found in Deut 32,25 and Josh 2,9. In the former passage, however, the term functions as a threat to Israel. According to the latter text, the Israelites themselves are a threat to the enemy, contrary to Exod 23,27 in which God will send his terror ahead of the Israelites⁴⁹. Finally, the noun h(rc (v. 28) occurs only three times in the Hebrew Bible (Exod 23,28; Deut 7,20; Josh 24,12). Although these passages have several elements in common, this term cannot be considered to be typically Deuteronom(ist)ic⁵⁰.

* * *

The comparison of Exod 23 with the (Deuteronomistic) scheme of YHWH-war in Exod 14, Josh 10, Judg 4 and 1 Sam 7, together with a brief investigation of the other elements within the epilogue of the "Book of the Covenant", which scholars have indicated as related to the motif of war of YHWH, is not truly indicative of the dependence of Exod 23 on Deuteronomistic literature. On the contrary, the language that seems to be connected with the "war of YHWH" rather suggests that the author(s) of Exod 23 has/have made use of a teminology that was peculiar to a tradition about YHWH as warrior, which probably has been used by the author(s) of the (Deuteronomistic) scheme as well.

SUMMARY

Some crucial elements of the compositional structure of the "war of YHWH" which can be found in Exod 14, Josh 10, Judg 4 and 1 Sam 7, equally occur in Exod 23,20-33. The differences between the latter text and the former pericopes, however, point into the conclusion that Exod 14, Josh 10, Judg 4 and 1 Sam 7 on the one hand and Exod 23,20-33 on the other are separate witnesses of an earlier tradition about YHWH as warrior.

Notes:

¹ For recent decades, see especially G. SCHMITT, Du sollst keinen Frieden schliessen mit den Bewohnern des Landes. Die Weisungen gegen die Kanaanдer in Israels Geschichte und Geschichtsschreibung (BWANT 91; Stuttgart – Berlin – Kцln – Mainz 1970) 13-24; H. HORN, "Traditionsschichten in Ex 23,10-33 und Ex 34,10-26", BZ 15 (1971) 203-222; G. SEITZ, Redaktionsgeschichtliche Studien zum Deuteronomium (BWANT 93; Stuttgart 1971) 77-79; F.-E. WILMS, Das jahwistische Bundesbuch in Exodus 34 (SANT 32; Mьnchen 1973) 187-189; J.P. FLOSS, Jahwe dienen – Gцttern dienen. Terminologische, literarische und semantische Untersuchung einer theologischen Aussage zum Gottesverhдltnis im Alten Testament (BBB 45; Kцln – Bonn 1975) 247-277; J. HALBE, Das Privilegrecht Jahwes Ex 34,10-26. Gestalt und Wesen, Herkunft und Wirken in vordeuteronomischer Zeit (FRLANT 114; Gцttingen 1975) 483-502; E. OTTO, Das Mazzotfest in Gilgal (BWANT 107; Stuttgart, 1975) 219-254; L. SCHWIENHORST-SCHЦNBERGER, Das Bundesbuch (Ex 20,22–23,33). Studien zu seiner Entstehung und Theologie (BZAW 188; Berlin – New York 1990) 406-414; R. ACHENBACH, Israel zwischen Verheissung und Gebot. Literarkritische Untersuchungen zu Deuteronomium 5–11 (EHS.T 422; Frankfurt am Main – Bern – New York – Paris 1991); Y. OSUMI, Die Kompositionsgeschichte des Bundesbuches Exodus 20,22b–23,33 (OBO 105; Freiburg – Gцttingen 1991) 63-68; M. WEINFELD, Deuteronomy 1–11. A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 5; New York – London – Toronto – Sydney – Auckland 1991) 377-384; H.-D. NEEF, ""Ich selber bin in ihm" (Ex 23,21). Exegetische Beobachtungen zur Rede vom "Engel des Herrn" in Ex 23,20-22; 32,34; 33,2; Jdc 2,1-5; 5,23", BZ 39 (1995) 54-75; W. OSWALD, Israel am Gottesberg. Eine Untersuchung zur Literargeschichte der vorderen Sinaiperikope Ex 19–24 und deren historischem Hintergrund (OBO 159; Freiburg 1998) 96-97, 169-170. For a detailed status quaestionis of historical-critical research (1837-1996) into Exod 23,20-33, see H. AUSLOOS, Deuteronomi(sti)sche elementen in Genesis–Numeri. Een onderzoek naar criteria voor identificatie op basis van een literaire analyse van de epiloog van het "Verbondsboek" (Exodus 23,20-33) (Doctoral Dissertation Faculty of Theology K.U. Leuven; Leuven 1996) 167-306. With regard to the Numeruswechsel in Exod 23,20-33, cf. ID., "The Risks of Rash Textual Criticism Illustrated on the Basis of the Numeruswechsel in Exod 23,20-33", BN 97 (1999) 5-12.

² According to W. RESENHЦFFT, Die Quellenberichte im Josef-Sinai-Komplex (Gen 37 bis Exod 24 mit 32–34) (EHS.T 199; Bern – Frankfurt am Main – New York 1983) 242, parts of Exod 23,20-33 are written by P. For F.V. WINNETT, The Mosaic Tradition (NMES 1; Toronto 1949) 43-46, the entire pericope is P.

³ Cf. W.H. BENNETT, Biblical Introduction. Old Testament (London 1899) 32: vv. 31b-33; C. STEUERNAGEL, Lehrbuch der Einleitung in das Alte Testament mit einem Anhang ьber die Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen (SThL; Tьbingen 1912) 157: vv. 23-24.28.31c-33; R. SMEND, Die Erzдhlung des Hexateuch auf ihre Quellen untersucht (Berlin 1912) 175, n. 2: v. 24d.e; C.H. CORNILL, Einleitung in die kanonischen Bьcher des Alten Testaments (GThW, 2/1; Freiburg i.B. 1891 – Tьbingen, ⁷1913) 75; S.L. BROWN, Exodus (A New Commentary of Holy Scripture Including the Apocrypha; London 1928) 90: vv. 23-24.31b-33; J. MORGENSTERN, "The Book of the Covenant. Part 1", HUCA 5 (1928) 1-151, esp. 4; G. BEER, Exodus. Mit einem Beitrag von K. Galling (HAT 1/3; Tьbingen 1939) 120-122: vv. 23-24.31b-33; C.A. SIMPSON, The Early Traditions of Israel. A Critical Analysis of the Predeuteronomic Narrative of the Hexateuch (Oxford 1948) 218: vv. 24.25a.26a.29-30.31b-33; J.C. RYLAARSDAM, The Book of Exodus. Introduction and Exegesis (IB 1; New York – Nashville 1952) 835: vv. 23-25a; SEITZ, Deuteronomium, 77-78: vv. 23-26*; H. CAZELLES, "Histoire et institutions dans la place et la composition d"Ex 20,22–23,19", Prophetie und geschichtliche Wirklichkeit im Alten Israel. Festschrift S. Herrmann (eds. R. LIWAK – S. WAGNER) (Stuttgart – Berlin – Kцln 1991) 56: vv. 24-25a.

⁴ A.H. MCNEILE, The Book of Exodus (London 1908) 143; B.D. EERDMANS, Alttestamentliche Studien. Part 3: Das Buch Exodus (GieЯen 1910) 97; SMEND, Erzдhlung, 175, n. 2; M. NOTH, Das zweite Buch Mose. Exodus ьbersetzt und erklдrt (ATD 5; Gцttingen 1959) 140, 156; G. TE STROETE, Exodus: uit de grondtekst vertaald en uitgelegd (BOT 1/2; Roermond – Maaseik 1966) 180; J.P. HYATT, Commentary on Exodus (NCeB; London 1971) 250; E. ZENGER, Die Sinaitheophanie. Untersuchungen zum jahwistischen und elohistischen Geschichtswerk (FzB 3; Wьrzburg 1971) 165; F. STOLZ, Jahwes und Israels Kriege. Kriegstheorien und Kriegserfahrungen im Glauben des alten Israel (ATANT 60; Zьrich 1972), 75; B.S. CHILDS, Exodus. A Commentary (OTL; London 1974) 461; ACHENBACH, Israel, 258-269; B. RENAUD, La thйophanie du Sinaп Ex 19–24. Exйgиse et thйologie (CRB 30; Paris 1991) 166-168; J. VERMEYLEN, "Les sections narratives de Deut 5–11 et leur relation а Ex 19–34", Das Deuteronomium. Entstehung, gestalt und Botschaft (ed. N. LOHFINK) (BETL 68; Leuven 1985) 174-207. Cf. also W. JOHNSTONE, "Reactivating the Chronicles Analogy in Pentateuchal Studies, with Special Reference to the Sinai Pericope in Exodus", ZAW 99 (1987) 16-37, esp. 25; H.H. SCHMID, Der sogenannte Jahwist. Beobachtungen und Fragen zur Pentateuchforschung (Zьrich 1976) 97; E. BLUM, Studien zur Komposition des Pentateuch (BZAW 189; Berlin – New York 1990) 375-376; ID., "Der kompositionelle Knoten am Ьbergang von Josua zu Richter. Ein Entflechtungsvorschlag", Deuteronomy and Deuteronomic Literature. Festschrift C.H.W. Brekelmans (eds. M. VERVENNE – J. LUST) (BETL 133; Leuven 1997), 181-212, esp. 190-192; J. VAN SETERS, "The So-Called Deuteronomistic Redaction of the Pentateuch", Congress Volume. Leuven 1989 (ed. J.A. EMERTON) (VTS 43; Leiden – New York – Kшbenhavn – Kцln 1991) 58-77, esp. 74.

⁵ Cf. e.g. R.A. COLE, Exodus, an Introduction and Commentary (TOTC; London 1973) 181; CHILDS, Exodus, 460-461; VAN SETERS, Redaction, 73-74.

⁶ "Die sogenannten deuteronomischen Elemente in Gen.–Num. Ein Beitrag zur Vorgeschichte des Deuteronomiums", Volume du Congrиs. Genиve 1965 (VTS 15; Leiden 1966) 90-96, esp. 94-95; ID., "Йlйments deutйronomiques dans le Pentateuque", Aux grands carrefours de la rйvйlation et de l"exйgиse de l"Ancien Testament (ed. C. HAURET) (RechBib 8; Bruges 1967) 77-91, esp. 84-90. See also N. LOHFINK, Das Hauptgebot. Eine Untersuchung literarischer Einleitungsfragen zu Dtn 5–11 (AnBib 20; Rome 1963) 122-124; J.G. PLЦGER, Literarkritische, formgeschichtliche und stilkritische Untersuchungen zum Deuteronomium (BBB 26; Bonn 1967) 71-77; A. REICHERT, Der Jehowist und die sogenannten deuteronomistischen Erweiterungen im Buch Exodus (Doctoral Dissertation Eberhard-Karls-Universitдt Tьbingen; Tьbingen 1972) 65-75.

⁷ Cf. literature in nn. 3 and 4.

⁸ HORN, Traditionsschichten, 221.

⁹ Ibid., 217. See also T.B. DOZEMAN, God at War. Power in the Exodus Tradition (New York – Oxford 1996) 97, nn. 189, 190.

¹⁰ M. VERVENNE, Het Zeeverhaal (Exodus 13,17–14,31). Een literaire studie (Doctoral Dissertation Faculty of Theology K.U. Leuven; Leuven 1986) 328-329.

¹¹ BREKELMANS, "Йlйments deutйronomiques", 87; HYATT, Exodus, 250; G. VON RAD, Der Heilige Krieg im alten Israel (Zьrich 1951) 10-11.

¹² BREKELMANS "Йlйments deutйronomiques", 87; HALBE, Privilegrecht, 495; F. STOLZ, "Mmh" THAT II, 502-504, esp. 503; VERVENNE, Zeeverhaal, 628; DOZEMAN, God at War, 38, n. 55. For HORN, "Traditionsschichten", 221, vv. 27-28 as a whole reflect the tradition of the "holy war".

¹³ SCHMITT, Frieden schlieЯen, 18; J. BLENKINSOPP, The Pentateuch. An Introduction to the First Five Books of the Bible (London 1992), 189.

¹⁴ SCHMITT, Frieden schlieЯen, 18.

¹⁵ DOZEMAN, God at War, 33, n. 29.

¹⁶ BREKELMANS, "Йlйments deutйronomiques", 88.

¹⁷ BREKELMANS, "Йlйments deutйronomiques", 87.

¹⁸ K)lm: HYATT, Exodus, 250-251; R. RENDTORFF, Das ьberlieferungsgeschichtliche Problem des Pentateuch (BZAW 147; Berlin – New York 1977) 152-153; C. WESTERMANN, Genesis, Tl 3: Genesis 12–36 (BKAT 1/2; Neukirchen-Vluyn 1981) 472; VERMEYLEN, "Sections narratives", 184; JOHNSTONE, "Analogy", 25; RENAUD, Thйophanie, 65; hmy): J.W. COLENSO, The Pentateuch and the Book of Joshua Critically Examined. Part 6 (London 1871) 104; HYATT, Exodus, 250-251; STOLZ, Kriege, 20; OSUMI, Kompositionsgeschichte, 215; ACHENBACH, Israel, 265; RENAUD, Thйophanie, 65; Mmh: COLENSO, Pentateuch, 104; HYATT, Exodus, 250-251; ACHENBACH, Israel, 265; Pr( Ntn: ACHENBACH, Israel, 265; h(rc: COLENSO, Pentateuch, 104; BLENKINSOPP, Introduction, 189; dyb Ntn: COLENSO, Pentateuch, 104.

¹⁹ "Les extrкmes se touchent... Proto-Deuteronomic and Simili-Deuteronomistic Elements in Genesis–Numbers", Deuteronomy (eds. VERVENNE – LUST) 341-366. Cf. also M. VERVENNE, "Le rйcit de la mer (Exode XIII 17 – XIV 31) reflиte-t-il une rйdaction de type deutйronomique? Quelques remarques sur le problиme de l"identification des йlйments deutйronomiques contenus dans le Tйtrateuque", Congress Volume Cambridge 1995 (ed. J.A. EMERTON) (VTS 66; Leiden – New York – Kцln 1997) 365-380, esp. 374.

²⁰ HALBE, Privilegrecht, 98-107.

²¹ In v. 20, hnh is followed by the participle xl#$ (v. 20) and the imperative wynpm rm#$h (v. 21). Cf. AUSLOOS, Deuteronomi(sti)sche elementen, 417.

²² W. RICHTER, Traditionsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen zum Richterbuch (BBB 18; Bonn ²1966) 180-186; P. WEIMAR, "Die Jahwekriegerzдhlungen in Exodus 14, Josua 10, Richter 4 und 1 Samuel 7", Bib 57 (1976) 38-73; VERVENNE, Zeeverhaal, 796-799.

²³ Cf. RICHTER, Untersuchungen, 181: "Alle Texte zeichnen sich durch sehr individuelles Geprдge aus".

²⁴ VERVENNE, Zeeverhaal, 797.

²⁵ According to VERVENNE, Zeeverhaal, 798, the similarities between Exod 14, Josh 10, Judg 4 and 1 Sam 7 cannot be explained "op grond van een gemeenschappelijk (traditioneel) schema. De formele verwantschap duidt op een literaire verwantschap".

²⁶ K.A.D. SMELIK, "Profetische reflectie op het verleden. Bijbelse verhalen tussen fictie en geschiedenis", De bijbel maakt school. Een Amsterdamse weg in de exegese (eds. K. DEURLOO – R. ZUURMOND) (Baarn 1984) 60-75, esp. 68.

²⁷ WEIMAR, "Jahwekriegerzдhlungen", 72-73.

²⁸ VERVENNE, Zeeverhaal, 798. About the affinity of Exod 13–14* with the Deuteronom(ist)ic language, style and theology, see 796.

²⁹ VERVENNE, Zeeverhaal, 799. Compare with Is 7. Are there not, however, several other periods within the history of Israel into which this theme would fit?

³⁰ Recently, Vervenne is more cautious in determining a passage as proto-Deuteronomic: ID., "Current Tendencies and Developments in the Study of the Book of Exodus", The Studies in the Book of Exodus. Redaction – Reception – Interpretation (ed. M. VERVENNE) (BETL 126; Leuven 1996), 21-59, esp. 41-42: "Until recently, I was convinced that a first redaction, constituting a relatively autonomous story, could be characterised as resulting from a "proto-Deuteronomic" redactional reworking (JE) of existing materials. It appears to me today, however, that this hypothesis needs much closer examination in order to make a more precise identification of the various elements that remind us of the Dt/dtr traditions".

³¹ On the distributive use of M(h lk, cf. AUSLOOS, Deuteronomi(sti)sche elementen, 500-501.

³² Josh 10,8.19.30.32; Judg 4,7.14.

³³ Exod 23,31; Num 21,2.34; Deut 2,24.30; 3,2.3; 7,24; 20,13; 21,10; Josh 2,24; 6,2; 8,1.7.18; 10,8.19.30.32; 11,8; 21,44; 24,8.11; Judg 1,2; 3,10.28; 4,7.14; 7,2.7.9.14.15.16; 8,3.15; 11,30.32; 12,3; 18,10; 20,28; 1 Sam 14,10.12.37; 17,47; 23,4.14; 24,5.11; 26,23; 30,23; 2 Sam 5,19; 1 Kgs 20,13; 22,6.12.15; 2 Kgs 3,10.13.18; 17,20; Ezra 9,24; 1 Chr 14,10; 22,18; 2 Chr 16,8; 18,5.11.14; 28,9 (cf. also Gen 9,2).

³⁴ Deut 1,27; 7,7; Judg 2,14; 6,1; 13,1; 1 Sam 28,19; 2 K 13,3; 21,14; Jer 20,4.5; 21,10; 22,25; 27,6; 29,21; 32,3.4.24.25.28.36.43; 34,2.3.20.21; 37,17; 38,3.16; 39,17; 44,30; 46,26; Ezek 7,21; 16,39; 21,36; 23,9.28; 31,11; 39,23; Ps 78,61; 106,41; Lam 2,7; Dan 1,2; 9,10; Ezra 9,7; 10,30; 2 Chr 13,16; 25,20; 28,5; 36,17. Judg 16,23.24 mentions how the Philistian deity Dagon has delivered Samson to the Philistines.

³⁵ Gen 30,35; 32,17; 39,4.8.22; 2 Sam 10,10; 16,8; 1 Kgs 15,18; 1 Chr 19,11; 2 Chr 34,16.

³⁶ Gen 40,13; Exod 5,21; 10,25; Deut 24,1.3; Judg 9,29; Isa 22,21; Jer 23,31; 30,24.25.

³⁷ Deut 19,12; Judg 15,12.13.18; 2 Sam 20,21; 21,9; 1 Kgs 18,9; 2 Kgs 18,30; 19,10; Isa 36,15; Jer 26,24; 38,18.19; 43,3; 46,24; Ps 10,14; Job 9,24; Dan 11,11; 1 Chr 5,20.

³⁸ In 2 Chr 29,6, the expression metaphorically refers to Israel"s apostasy from YHWH (cf. M. ZIPOR, "Pr(", TWAT VI, 392-397, esp. 394).

³⁹ I.e. Deuteronomy, Joshua–Kings and the so-called Deuteronomistic parts of Jeremiah. As to the designation "Deuteronomistic canon", see AUSLOOS, "Extrкmes", 347-348; cf. also N. LOHFINK, "Gab es eine deuteronomistische Bewegung?", Jeremia und die "deuteronomistische Bewegung" (ed. W. GROSS) (BBB 98; Weinheim 1995), 313-382, esp. 322.

⁴⁰ Deut 9,6.13; 10,16; 31,27; Josh 7,8.12; 2 Sam 22,41; 2 Kgs 17,41; Jer 7,26; 17,23; 32,33.

⁴¹ M. WEINFELD, Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic School (Oxford 1972) 341, characterises the expression Pr( h#$qh as a stereotypical feature of Deuteronomic language, referring to Deut 10,16; 2 Kgs 17,14; Jer 7,26; 17,23; 19,15.

⁴² Cf. also BREKELMANS, "Йlйments deutйronomiques", 87; HALBE, Privilegrecht, 142; OTTO, Mazzotfest, 206; U. KЦPPEL, Das deuteronomistische Geschichtswerk und seine Quellen. Die Absicht der deuteronomistischen Geschichtsdarstellung aufgrund des Vergleichs zwischen Num 21,21-35 und Dtn 2,26–3,3 (EHS.T 122; Bern 1979) esp. 186.

⁴³ Cf. also A.A. ANDERSON, 2 Samuel (WBC 11; Dallas, TX 1989), 265: "The scene depicted is either that of retreat (cf. Exod 23:27) or of total defeat of the enemies (i.e., the victor places his foot on the neck of the enemy, as in Josh 10:24). V 41b seems to suggest the latter alternative".

⁴⁴ In order to express this imitating relationship, I use the term "simili-Deuteronomistic". Cf. my contribution "Extrкmes", 352-355.

⁴⁵ Cf. also the already mentioned similarities with Ps 18: verse 15: Mmh; verse 41: Pr( Ntn. According to M. DAHOOD, Psalms 1–50 (AB 16; New York 1965) 104, this royal song of thanksgiving can be attributed to David. Dahood"s explanation of Pr( Ntn, suggesting that it should not be interpreted as denoting the flight of enemies, but rather evoke "the image of the victor placing his foot on the neck of the vanquished, as represented on reliefs and described in literary texts" (116) is not convincing. In order to defend this thesis, Dahood refers to Josh 10,24, in which Joshua summons the chiefs of the men of war to put their feet upon the necks of the defeated kings. In this text, however, the noun Pr( is not used.
For the relationship between Exod 23,20-33 and Deut 7 with regard to the "war of YHWH" theme, see esp. WEINFELD, Deuteronomic School, 46-48, who indicates that in the latter text the sayings from Exod 23 "have been reworked and expanded into a military oration of consummate construction" (46).

⁴⁶ See e.g. WEINFELD, Deuteronomic School, 34.

⁴⁷ Cf. AUSLOOS, Deuteronomi(sti)sche elementen, 418-420; ID., "Judges 2:1-5 and the Deuteronom(ist)ic Redaction of Genesis–Numbers" (forthcoming). Using the verb xl#$ as a feature for the YHWH-war tradition (cf. supra n. 8) seems dubious to me, since the verb occurs 570 times within the Old Testament (cf. F.I. ANDERSEN – A.D. FORBES, The Vocabulary of the Old Testament [Rome 1989] 434).

⁴⁸ AUSLOOS, Deuteronomi(sti)sche elementen, 457-458.

⁴⁹ AUSLOOS, Deuteronomi(sti)sche elementen, 497-498.

⁵⁰ AUSLOOS, Deuteronomi(sti)sche elementen, 506-509. With regard to use of the verb #$rg with YHWH or his messenger as subject, it should be noted that, contrary to the expulsion of the autochthonous peoples in Exod 23,28-31, in Deuteronomy their destruction is accentuated. Compare Deut 33,27, where #$rg and dm#$ are used together. See WEINFELD, Deuteronomic School, 346-347.