God's Steadfast Love
Towards a New Conception of Old Testament Theology ^*

Anyone talking about Old Testament theology in the present state of research is taking a risk in a situation where the validity of this approach is challenged¹. The relationship between Old Testament theology and the history of Israel's religion is at stake. Should the history of Israel's religion be regarded as superior to Old Testament theology or even as the better Old Testament theology²? After all, it can do without those restricting theological limitations which become inevitable if you are to interpret a fixed canon of scriptures as Old Testament theology does. The historian of Israel's religion is obliged to give priority to all literary sources available and to the relics of the material culture. For him, the biblical canon is only one collection of sources among others, and by no means the most important. Is not the historian of Israel's religion in the better position to reconstruct and describe the religion's development more objectively? This has to be admitted in a purely historical respect. The task of an Old Testament theologian, however, is different. The Old Testament theologian has to accept the biblical canon as the basis of his task. The idea of the biblical canon is aimed at conveying and preserving the voice of truth among the manifold voices of the witnesses. You cannot write a theology of the Old Testament without being aware of the obligation towards the truth of Scripture within the scriptures of the canon. While a history of Israel's religion is a purely historical undertaking, a theology of the Old Testament has to do justice to the normative collection of the biblical canon. While a historian of Israel's religion may consider whether the monotheism of the biblical scriptures is a regrettable restriction compared with the options of polytheism a theologian of the Old Testament has to argue in favour of monotheism and to make clear why the witnesses of the biblical canon are so determined in this respect.

Thus, each discipline, the history of Israel's religion and the theology of the Old Testament, has its own right, respectively. They can be clearly distinguished and are of mutual benefit. On the one hand, the Old Testament theologian will accept the history of Israel's religion as a critical reconstruction of the past and will apply it productively. On the other hand, the historian of Israel's religion will accept that the variety of religious documents he has critically described represents various claims of truth. The criteria promoting the one claim of truth within the biblical canon are of purely theological nature. They are the subject of Old Testament theology. One cannot prove with historical arguments that monotheism is a higher form of religion than polytheism. This is a normative decision made by metahistorical arguments. Old Testament theology is the discipline for promoting these arguments as convincingly as the biblical scriptures did.

Supporting this view of Old Testament theology is just the starting point of serious trouble. As a matter of fact, there are different biblical canons with different perceptions of truth promoted by different communities of faith. The problem is very delicate, as the relation of the Jewish to the Christian Bible is concerned. It is of vital importance to be clear on the canonical basis which is to be interpreted. By using the term ‘Old Testament' the intention is indicated to practice Old Testament theology as a segmentary field of a theology of the Christian Bible³. The Old Testament is neither identical with the Jewish Bible nor are Hebrew Bible and Old Testament interchangeable terms. The Old Testament owes both its name and the realization of its truth to the second part of the Christian Bible, the New Testament, or at least to the predominant subject of the New Testament scriptures, the witness of Jesus Christ. Old Testament theology necessarily depends on New Testament theology and on the Bible in which the realization of Christ has been perceived, namely in the Greek version of the Old Testament, roughly speaking, in the Septuagint⁴. Originally a Jewish Bible as well, it is this version of the Old Testament with its Greek language, with its number and arrangement of biblical scriptures which prepared the way for the understanding of the life and death of Jesus Christ⁵.

The Septuagint was the nucleus of the Christian Bible. Moreover, the Septuagint with its synthesis of Jewish and Hellenistic legacy was the matrix for the formation of Christianity. Any Old Testament theologian who conceives his discipline as a part of the theology of the Christian Bible will have to consider the Greek version of the Old Testament at least as carefully as the Hebrew version. These presuppositions, presented here in rough outline, are the basis for the material concept of Old Testament theology which attempts to do justice to the Hebrew and to the Greek voices in four steps.

I. God's Self-Determination towards Steadfast Love

One might be surprised that I hold God's self-determination towards love to be the origin of an Old Testament theology. This characterization would rather suggest a New Testament theology. But according to the presuppositions of an Old Testament theology noted above, the truth of Old Testament theology can only be established by considering New Testament theology. This is the reason why I characterize God's self-determination towards love by the theological category of origin, and not by the historical category of beginning. God's self-determination of love becomes evident by his decision to establish a special loving relation with mankind which is realized in a unique love-story, namely God's love for Israel. This is obvious for the Old Testament's own basic position and from the New Testament's point of view as well.

Within the traditions of the Old Testament the love-story originates in the Pentateuch. When you attempt to grasp Pentateuchal theology in the most important issue, you may not focus on YHWH as a god of a nomadic people or a god of a mountain or a god who asserted his monotheistic claim over a long period of time, first coexisting with other gods, and later on contending with them. This would be the subject of a history of Israel's religion. Aiming at Pentateuchal theology you should rather take monotheism as the starting point and direct attention to the theological topics which the composers of the Pentateuch emphasized most. In this respect it is obvious that in both the Deuteronomistic and the Priestly compositions and, accordingly, in the final shape of the Pentateuch, the events at Sinai are the center of interest. They are characterized by the contrast between theophany, legislation, covenant and vision of God on the one hand, and Israel's breaking of the covenant on the other. The latter is illustrated by the Golden Calf and its adoration. The original revelation of that God who brings out of Egypt and preserves his people in the wilderness is immediately confronted with Israel's original sin, namely their love affairs with other gods. God's love story with Israel does not exist without adultery and disloyalty. The confrontation of God's presence in Israel and Israel's original sin provokes the question: How can God continue to be present in Israel — not as a destroyer, but even as a redeemer?

In the situation of betrayed love Israel's God himself describes his character in a new theophany and proclaims how he is going to treat Israel (Ex 34):

6 The LORD passed before him (Moses), and proclaimed, "The LORD, the LORD, a God merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness, ⁷ keeping steadfast love for thousands, forgiving iniquity and transgression and sin, but who will by no means clear the guilty, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children and the children's children, to the third and the fourth generation"⁶. (RSV)

As an answer to Israel's adultery God confirms his love and faithfulness. As this confirmation is uttered in the third person, it is obvious that it was probably used as a hymnic formula in cultic praises of God. In Exod 34, however, it is intentionally shaped as divine speech, because regarding the original sin of idolatry, only God himself can say how he will continue to be perceivable for the Israelites. God remains true to Israel in remaining true to his self-determination towards his dsx, his steadfast love⁷. However, hurt by adultery God's love takes the shape of mercy and grace, of abstaining from anger and of being ready to forgive the thousands (i.e. numerous) of generations without any limit, although the punishment restricted to four generations would not fail to come. But this is not as remarkable as its juxtaposition, namely God's unlimited love that remains true to Israel. God immediately confirms his self-determination by a new covenant and by a new proclamation of his law (Exod 34,10-27)⁸.

The hymnic formula of God's lasting self-determination towards love has a history extending far back into Canaanite myths. I would describe this in a history of Israel's religion. In an Old Testament theology, however, the main point is that God's self-determination as found in Exod 34 has produced a history of its own within the Old Testament⁹. Before we examine this history closely we will have a final look at the formula itself. Its nucleus proclaims Israel's God as a god of love and faithfulness. The crucial Hebrew term for this is dsx, often explained by tm). The Septuagint translates both nouns with adjectives, polue/leoj kai_ a)lhqino/j ‘very merciful and truthful'¹⁰. In the Authorized Version both terms are translated by ‘abundant in goodness and truth', the (New) Revised Standard Version says ‘steadfast love and faithfulness', and the Jerusalem Bible renders ‘kindness and faithfulness'. These references to the Septuagint and different English translations may appear confusing, but they prove the semantic complexity of the terms dsx and tm). The semantic spectrum coloured by dsx is marked by the terms grace, mercy, compassion, kindness, love, that of tm) by faithfulness and truth. ‘Faithful love' and ‘steadfast love' seem to be appropriate terms to signify how God perceives his relation towards Israel in this central passage of the Sinai pericope.

The final shape of the Sinai pericope conveys the same message as its Deuteronomistic precursor did earlier¹¹: God does not determine his relationship with Israel momentarily, but fundamentally. He does so not before he has had any experience with Israel, but right at the climax of the crisis occuring during his love-story with Israel, namely having adultery in view. At this point, God's love takes the shape of faithfulness and mercy that is willing to forgive — not only once, but once and over again. All this is expressed by the word dsx in Exod 34,6-7 and the enlarged formula of grace, accordingly. We will now scrutinize some important references to God's self-determination towards love that shed light on the further development of this central notion in the Old Testament.

II. Living in God's Saving Presence: the Psalter

That God has determined himself towards love in the primeval situation at Mt. Sinai has influenced Israel's living in the presence of God. The people as a whole and also every individual Israelite always considered themselves as being dependent on the saving God. The Psalter offers abundant evidence for this. The cultic-spiritual sphere of the Psalter created its own way of theological thinking and speaking. For centuries it kept its distance from the Pentateuchal theology focussing on salvation-history and legislation. Within a history of Israel's religion I would show Israel's special commitment to the cult and prayers of the Ancient Near East and the multiple processes of adaption. Within an Old Testament theology, however, I am concerned with the question what theological powers reconciled the various theological conceptions and what held them together thereafter.

The idea of dsx is one of the most characteristic features in the Psalter. Word-statistics easily make this evident. Out of 245 occurrences in the Old Testament dsx is found 127 times in the Psalter. Of these, 124 occurrences refer to God's dsx. No other Old Testament writing can compare with this frequent use of the term which occurs in 54 Psalms out of 150. Apart from the refrain in Ps 136 ‘for his steadfast love endures forever' (26 occurrences) the word is not significantly concentrated in any special text. Rather, the term is one of the fundamental theological categories within the Psalms' theology; as the Psalter as a the whole underwent a process of being added to, and supplemented with theological ideas in the course of the centuries, so did this term. Most of the Psalter's references already presuppose the crucial importance of God's dsx in the Sinai event.

Presumably, the individual lament in Ps 61 still preserves a reminiscence of the pre-exilic idea of dsx just without reference to the Sinai pericope. The psalmist prays to God that he might again shelter his life which is endangered by the underworld and by enemies. The thought of sheltering is condensed by metaphorical speech, namely the metaphor of the everlasting abode in God's tent which is an image of the temple. Abiding in God's tent does not imply living within the circle of the Temple's walls, of course. Anyone whose life is centred on God's presence emanating from the temple may abide in God's tent or under the shelter of his wings. This fits in with Ps 61 as a whole; it concludes with a plea for the king.

7 Prolong the life of the king;
may his years endure to all generations!
⁸ May he be enthroned forever before God;
appoint steadfast love and faithfulness (tm)w dsx) to watch over him!¹²

Steadfast love and faithfulness are qualities of God himself which, passed on the king, ensure the stability of the land and the safety of every Israelite threatened by powers of the world and the underworld. The king on David's throne is God's mandatary in Jerusalem and the mediator of his blessing. He transmits the divine gifts to his people. This can be achieved by righteous government, as one may gather from the similar expression in Prov 20,28¹³. tm)w dsx in Ps 89,15 have a similar function. They are forces in God's presence paralleled by +p#mw qdc "righteousness and justice" that build up the foundation of God's throne¹⁴. All these notions together show that they belong to the theology of God's kingship focussing on God's granting the welfare of his king and his people. dsx plays an important part among the divine gifts guaranteeing God's order in the world for Israel's benefit.

Turning to the later phases of the Psalter's theology we have to recall that in the meantime God's self-determination towards faithful love was included in the composition of the Pentateuch. This may explain why God's dsx likewise developed into a theological keyword of the Psalter. Finally, it has been regarded as the most important theological term there is to describe God's being and acting in the realm of the Psalter's theology. This is the case in Ps 136. The refrain declares 26 times ‘for his dsx (steadfast love) endures for ever'. The psalm describes God as the creator, the governor and preserver of the universe (136,2-9.25). It encloses the presentation of the master of salvation history who acted in support of his people on the occasion of the exodus, in leading them through the wilderness, giving the land and rescuing them from any humiliation. Each single divine deed proves God's eternal nature inherent in the term dsx. God's steadfast love is present in creation and in history more than abundantly. The universal claim is once more stressed in the exterior frame of the psalm (136,1.26). The Lord, the God of heaven (Mym#h l)¹⁵) (136,26), is bw+ ‘good' (136,1). God's being good emanates into creation as his dsx ‘steadfast love'. Everyone living in the Persian period and later in the Hellenistic age — not only in Israel — is able to perceive this as God's true nature. Of course, God's being good means above all his goodness as the Septuagint appropriately interprets bw+, rendering it as xrhsto/j ‘merciful' (136,1 MT = 135,1 LXX) ¹⁶. This is in accordance with the practice of the Septuagint which translates dsx predominantly by e!leoj ‘mercy'¹⁷ foreshadowed in late Psalms' interpreting dsx by Mymxr ‘mercy'¹⁸. God's love has to be conceivable as goodness and mercy, if it is to affect men in Israel. The more time passes, the more the Israelites become aware that they themselves are incapable of being righteous (cf. Ps 143,2) and that, therefore, they are completely dependent on the good and merciful God¹⁹.

In the Psalms the good and merciful God proves to be the saving God²⁰. This correlation is exemplified frequently. When the psalmist relies on God's dsx, his heart may rejoice in God's salvation (Ps 13,6). In post-exilic times the pre-exilic theological concept is embedded in a system of numerous relations. Praising God's steadfast love (dsx) and faithfulness (tm)) is to proclaim God's righteousness (hqdc), truth (hnwm)) and salvation (h(w#t) (Ps 40,10-11). Thus, praising God's true nature means two things at the same time: doing his will (40,8-9) and asking for his grace (40,12). Doing God's will is not a burden, but delight. It is pronounced in a scroll as instruction (hrwt) that intends to enter into men completely as a relief and as a claim (40,8). Or to put it differently according to the same psalm: The psalmist enters the scroll as if he entered God's temple (yt)b-hnh, 40,8; cf. 73,17), because God is entirely present in both. This entering into God's wholesome, saving and gracious presence, however, does not exempt the psalmist from world and sin, but rather prompts him to accept the Torah affectionately and to ask to be protected by God's steadfast love and faithfulness (40,12). Not until confronted with the abundance of God's grace does the psalmist perceive the abundance of evil in the world and in his own life, an abundance that exceeds in number the hairs of his head (40,13). But God's love is greater than men's sin. The pleas are addressed to a god whose steadfast love and faithfulness are well approved. Therefore, the lamentation does not gain a dominating position in Ps 40. Rather, the psalmist hopes to be soon reintegrated in the congregation of those who are called Kt(w#t ybh) ‘lovers of your salvation' (40,17 = 70,5). This designation corresponds with the Hebrew title of the Psalter: Mylht ‘hymns'. Under the aspect of God's saving presence all the Psalms collected in the Psalter are regarded as songs of praise, even the lamentations which make up the bulk of the prayers. Appealing to the steadfast loving God for help has the effect of being touched by his saving love changing mourning to praising, putting a new song in our mouth, namely a song of praise (cf. 40,4). This could not be imagined without the theological power of dsx that has affected the Psalter in its entirety. Simultaneously, it has influenced the prophetic tradition, contributing a remarkable number of theological insights.

III. With Everlasting Love I Will Have Compassion on You: The Books of the Prophets

The tradition as given in the major and minor prophets originates from Israel's betrayal of the loving God. Prophetic writings would not exist if, in the course of the 8th century, God had not made the prophets announce the destruction of his people (cf. Amos 8,2). Moreover, prophetic writings would not have become an influential tradition if God had just executed the sentence of doom announced by the prophets without any mercy. Prophetic writings reflect God striving to maintain his love in view of Israel's betrayal. When he decides to execute the sentence of doom, he does so as being inwardly torn apart by his inextinguishable love. Israel was told about this tension between doom and steadfast love within God's inner self by the prophets over and over again. The validity of the prophetic word was confirmed by continual updating within the growing prophetic writings that were acquiring a more and more authoritative character. Some aspects of this process will now be portrayed.

Hosea's prophetic existence is formed as an image of God's internal conflict between doom and love²¹. The prophet's children bear symbolic names, the daughter hmxr )l ‘Not pitied' (Hos 1,6) and one of his sons ym( )l ‘Not my people' (1,9). Thus, they incorporate God's turning away from Israel which endangers Israel's life. Israel understood quite well that in case God withdrew his mercy, this would mean serious danger. Consequently, those writers who were handing down the tradition took pains to exempt Judah from God's merciless judgement (cf. 1,7) and to have the promise of God's new mercy (cf. 2,1-3), certainly presupposing the experience of his judgement. The promise given in Hos 2,3 makes unmistakably clear what the children's ominous names already suggested. When God revokes his mercy, God's relation with the Israelite people ceases to exist. ‘Not my people' may still be taken as a people in the eyes of the world. Theologically speaking, they are less than nothing. Like a reflected image the names ‘My people' and ‘Pitied' occur in Hos 2,3. They indicate the future promise that Israel might be identified with these. Only where God's steadfast love for his people is realized as mercy is there a chance of life for Israel, namely living as sons of the living, that is, the life-giving God (cf. 2,1).

In the Book of Hosea, Israel's betrayal becomes the central theme dealt with in terms of love. In Hos 6,1-6²² the people's willingness to repent is compromised by their foolish belief in salvation that will come for certain. Israel's God may strike, but he does cure as well — that is as certain as the dawn and the showers. God's steadfast love — Hosea avoids this term in connection with God on purpose — is part of Israel's reckoning with salvation. Lamenting Israel's inability to love, God says: ‘Your love (dsx) is like a morning cloud, like the dew that goes away early' (Hos 6,4b). There is no steadfast love on Israel's part. Israel does not comprehend the fatal presence of judgement which the prophetic word suggests (6,5a). Instead, they keep confiding without any reserve in God's benevolent presence. God, however, is waiting for mutual love and knowledge — in vain. Steadfast love (dsx) and knowledge of God (Myhl) t(d) are intentionally combined in Hos 6,6. There is no blind love for God. There is only steadfast love combined with a listening heart, as the sages would put it (1 Kgs 3,9). Knowing God is loving and understanding at the same time. For sure, God will meet this with loving approval (ytcpx, Hos 6,6). There is only a gradual difference as compared to Ps 1, where the delight taken in the Torah (hwhy trwtb wcpx) (1,2) leads the blissful man to the way of the righteous known by the loving God (cf. 1,6).

In the Book of Hosea God turns out to be incapable of executing judgement²³. He is repenting of his anger (Hos 11,8-9). ‘What shall I do with you?' in Hos 6,4 is developed into ‘How can I give you up!' in Hos 11,8. The reason for this is significant: ‘for I am God and not man' (11,9b). God's being God means being capable of repenting of his just anger that he felt because of Israel's adultery. Upon what could God's repentance be based if not upon his steadfast love that turns out to be mercy? Consequently, one of the compositionally latest pronouncements in the Book of Hosea utters the promise:

And I will betroth you to me for ever; I will betroth you to me in righteousness and in justice (+p#mbw qdcb), in steadfast love and in mercy (Mymxrbw dsxb). I will betroth you to me in faithfulness (hnwm)b); and you shall know the Lord (Hos 2,21-22)²⁴.

This is a theological combination of two factors: that which is substantial for God and that which shall become reality for Israel. In the centre of the Torah (Exod 34,6) and throughout the Psalter the formula of grace tells us the same. The idea of God's expected re-betrothal to Israel in the Book of Hosea, however, includes the dimension of promise. It surpasses any preceding experience and — as other prophetic books do — transcends its own limits to gain a promising future. It is worth noticing that this occurs not only at the end of the book (Hos 14,2-9)²⁵, but in its first chapters. The position of the promise is even more prominent in the Septuagint where the twelve minor prophets are at the head of the prophetic writings, at least according to the tradition witnessed by Codex Vaticanus and Codex Alexandrinus. This is certainly due to the ancient chronology of the prophets. But maybe there was an additional reason for situating this book at the head of the prophetic canon, namely because it proclaims God's struggle for his betrayed love which is a struggle inside God himself (11,8-9) and a struggle between God and Israel (12,1-10) ²⁶. God is victorious in the struggle, both against himself and against Israel. God's love as mercy is a new chance for Israel's future. This seems to be the pregnant starting point of prophecy in the Septuagint's arrangement.

How does prophecy come to an end in the Old Testament? Some theological hints will answer this question. They are based on several observations on how prophetic tradition came to be shaped into the form of books. Considering the importance of the Septuagint, we ought to direct our attention to the fact that it includes the apocalyptic Book of Daniel in the prophetic writings as the last book of the sequence. Thus, the Greek version emphasizes once again its characteristic concept of prophecy as intensely orientated towards the future. A similar tendency, however, is already present in the Hebrew version of the prophetic writings. This can be exemplified in the Books of Jeremiah and Deuteroisaiah. Both resume and carry on the prophecy of the Book of Hosea.

The first example is Jer 31, especially the section about the new covenant in 31,31-34²⁷. According to this passage God writes the Torah on the Israelites' hearts, thus effecting immediate knowledge of God which men are incapable of achieving by themselves. God, however, makes them capable of it by planting the Torah into the hearts and combining it with an extensive forgiving of sin. Asking for the reason that may have induced God to this revival of his relation with Israel, the preceding passage unfolds the motif by referring to other prophetic writings and texts in the Old Testament. The intertextual dialogue with other, also still-developing books, proves Jer 31 — at least as a composition — to be a product of post-exilic times. The most important partners within this dialogue are the growing books of Hosea and Isaiah. In order to understand God's decision to establish a new covenant in Jer 31, the references in the Book of Hosea are most significant. The text Hos 2,16-22* talks about God's courting Israel again, about his covenant with animal creatures to Israel's benefit, and about his betrothal to Israel because of his loving mercy. In Jer 31,2-3 those Israelites who have escaped from the disaster in 587 rediscover God's favour (Nx) in the wilderness and return into the land. They are guided by that God who again reveals himself and again offers a knowledge that Israel obviously had lost: ‘I have loved you with an everlasting love (Mlw( tbh)); therefore I have continued my faithfulness (dsx) to you' (31,3b). Whereas God strives for a new betrothal to Israel because of his love in Hos 2, he strives for the new covenant because of his love in Jer 31. Although it is the same love in Hosea and Jeremiah, eternal love in Jer 31,3 obviously has a different intensity. The new covenant is more than a new betrothal. Israel may again be an acceptable partner in the covenant because the new covenant reforms Israel herself. Knowledge of God becomes something immmediate in Jer 31,34, as the Torah is right within the people's hearts²⁸. In Jer 31 God has not recreated everything, but something crucial — caused by his eternal love for Israel. Here, an immense hope is born.

The Septuagint situates the revival of God's eternal love in the last but one position within the prophetic book (Jer 38 LXX [Jer 31 MT] as part of the section Jer 37–42 LXX [Jer 30–35 MT]) followed by the story of Jeremiah's suffering which makes up the end of the prophet's book (43–51 LXX [36–45 MT]). Although the sequence of the sections is already the same in MT, the Greek version of Jeremiah emphasizes the unsettled tension between the promise and the prophet's suffering even more by situating the latter in the final position. The relation of promise and suffering remains unresolved.

The Book of Deuteroisaiah (Isa 40–55) theologically intensifies the relation of promising love and suffering. In this respect, two texts can be regarded as a theological climax: the fourth song of God's Servant in Isa 52,13–53,12²⁹ and the following passage in 54,1-10 which gives a promise to the woman Zion, a woman with a history, who is addressed by her divine husband³⁰. Both passages are referring to one another. In the central portion of the Servant's fourth song (Isa 53,1-11aa), a group says what the unidentified Servant's suffering means to them. Here, suffering does not only imply representation³¹, but substitution. What the Servant does is give up his life for others: ‘But he was wounded for our transgressions, he was bruised for our iniquities, upon him was the chastisement that made us whole, and with his stripes we are healed' (Isa 53,5). The possibility of taking fatal suffering upon him (53,8) presupposes the Servant's sinlessness (53,9) and the conformity of his will with God's (53,6.10). In the verses framing the message of the group God himself confirms the effectivity of the Servant's suffering and death. Probably, it is even further expanded. In the final passage (53,11ab-12), it is stressed thrice that the ‘many' (Mybr) profit by the Servant's suffering and death. Who these many are, is not defined here. But the fact that v. 12 parallelizes the many and the sinners (My(#p) seems to support the view that the many are regarded as a more numerous group than the one proclaiming the Servant's suffering. Finally, the introductory divine speech in 52,12-15 clarifies the understanding aimed at. Here, we discover a tendency to identify the many (52,14) with the many nations (Mybr Mywg) (52,15). The Servant's suffering has assumed universal meaning; it is a promise to the nations which originates from a deed already performed.

The close relation between God and the Servant conveyed by his suffering and death reaches the limits of theological imagination within the Old Testament³². In the Book of Deuteroisaiah, the Servant's fourth song is immediately followed by a text which replaces the relationship of God and the Servant by the relationship of man and woman representing the relationship between God and Zion-Israel. After betrayal and adultery, after sterility and widowhood — the images of sin and suffering overlap and permeate one another — God declares and promises his love to his wife Zion-Israel. This love need not be reanimated; it was always there. God could never give up his first love. ‘Can a wife of a man's youth be cast off, says your God?³³ For a brief moment I abandoned you, but with great compassion (Mymxr Myldg) I will gather you. In overflowing wrath for a moment I hid my face from you, but with everlasting love (Mlw( dsx) I will have compassion on you, says the Lord, your Redeemer (Mxrm)' (54,6b-8). Although this God is ‘the God of the whole earth' (54,5b), his love is exclusively directed towards Israel, his first love. God's anger is not nearly stressed as much as his love. His love is not only great compassion, but ‘my covenant of salvation' (ymwl# tyrb, 54,10). In the preceding verse (54,9), the Priestly Code's covenant between God and Noah (cf. Gen 9,8-17) is recalled. It was deliberately done in reference to the Servant's fourth song. As Noah's covenant is surpassed by the firm promise of merciful love, so the Servant's intercession is implicitly rejected by God's salvatory covenant. There are no mediators between God and Israel, either in the field of love or in that of sin.

Even more than MT the Septuagint has stylized the passage in Isa 54 as the canticle of divine mercy. To give only one example: Mxrm in 54,10, an epithet of God that means ‘who has compassion', is rendered by #Ilewj, ‘gracious', that sounds like e!leoj, due to the itacism of Hellenistic Greek. There is no other explanation than the homophony of e!leoj ‘compassion' and #Ilewj ‘gracious'. God himself is the incarnation of compassion. However, it is left undecided in what way God's compassion may be realized in Israel, considering the guilt which is continually separating Israel from God. Furthermore, it is left undecided in what way the nations may find a position within God's intimate relation to Israel. The further time proceeds, the more the tension between the salvation of Israel and the judgement of the nations increases. But prophecy does not offer a final word about it.

IV. God's Steadfast Love in Jesus Christ:
End and Abundance of the Law

From the New Testament witnesses' point of view the final word about this tension is the word of truth given in Jesus Christ. These witnesses themselves were Jews who lived on the words of their developing Jewish Bible, especially as represented by the Septuagint. After the glimpses just caught of the Old Testament tradition it is no wonder that they perceived Christ's coming as the answer to the words they found in their Jewish Bible, which became Christian thereafter. It may be left undecided which texts in the Septuagint were still used in a proper Jewish sense and which were already reinterpreted in a Christian sense. There is no doubt that even the Jewish version of the Septuagint was a book suggestive of the belief in Christ. Otherwise the earliest Christians and the early church would not have appreciated it so much, and Hellenistic Judaism would not have abandoned it.

To give an example from the Septuagint. How should (still Jewish) witnesses who had come to believe in Christ understand their Greek Bible when they read Ps 135,1 LXX (136,1 MT): ‘O give thanks to the Lord (tw=| kuri/w|), for he is good (o#ti xrhsto/j), for his mercy endures forever'. The ku/rioj is called xrhsto/j ‘good, merciful'. As this term is a homophone of Xristo/j in current Greek language of that time, the two words would be identified. This identification, found not only in Ps 135,1 LXX but also in 33,9 LXX (34,9 MT) and elsewhere, has been put into practice in 1 Pet 2,3. In the verses immediately following this identification, the great promises to Israel and God's beneficent actions are announced to those who have come to believe in Christ:

But you are a chosen generation, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, God's own people, that you may declare the wonderful deeds of him who called you out of darkness into his marvellous light. Once you were no people, but now you are God's people; once you had not received mercy, but now you have received mercy (1 Pet 2,9-10).

Nearly every word within these lines and in the context subsists in Old Testament words. ‘No people' that has become ‘God's people' — an allusion to Hos 1–2 — is now understood as the nations, whose relationship with God had not been clearly defined in the Old Testament.

The mercy the nations experienced consists in Jesus Christ's suffering and death on behalf of all men's guilt. The idea of a singular sacrifice as a substitute on behalf of the many's guilt had been conceived in the Servant's fourth song, but it was not resumed within the Old Testament. Now, however, it gains significance. When St. Paul wants to present the essentials of Christian faith, he employs the already adopted tradition ‘that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the scriptures, that he was buried, that he was raised on the third day in accordance with the scriptures' (1 Cor 15,3-4). This testimony can only be related to the just developing Jewish Bible. St. Paul does not quote certain texts as his testimony, but instead the authoritative writings as a whole are qualified as testimony. Nevertheless, there are allusions to possibly three passages: Isa 53, Hos 6,2 and Jonah 2,1. Theological perception is not dependent on textual quantities. Quite consciously he says ‘in accordance with the scriptures', and not ‘in accordance with several texts in the scriptures'. This is to perceive the entire whole as such and at the same time to select parts from it on purpose. Looking at the Servant's fourth song from this point of view leads to the following conclusion. The idea of the Servant's suffering and death goes beyond the scope of the Old Testament, probably due to the fact that the Servant's relationship with God may have been suspected of affecting the monotheistic concept of the Old Testament. The Servant's fourth song carries the idea of his close relationship with God on even to the edge of the idea of God's incarnation in human flesh, although the song does not take this final step. God's incarnation in Jesus Christ is to effect the atonement of the many's guilt by his suffering and death. This divine action is the New Testament's centre. It was only possible to perceive this divine action, its necessity and possibiliy, through the writings that first developed into the Jewish and, later, the Christian Bible. Without these writings, not least the Servant's fourth song, it would have been impossible to understand this divine action as an action caused by love (cf. Rom 5,8; John 3,16). It is significant that God's mercy, which is a predominant motif in the more recent Old Testament documents, is largely replaced by God's love in the New Testament. God reconciling the world with himself through his beloved son (2 Cor 5,17-21) makes the loving relationship of the Father and the Son affect the world. According to the example of God's relationship to wisdom (cf. Wis 1,6; 7,22–8,1; 9–10) God's mercy takes the shape of love of humankind because God's love for his son and for the world are one and the same. Since Christians experience and perceive this in Christ's love they lead their lives gratefully receiving and passing on this love. This is now the way having the abundance of the law in their own lives (cf. Rom 13,8-10), although the law as a way of salvation has come to an end by Christ's suffering and death (cf. 10,4).

The New Testament does not conceal that interpretation is required in order to come to know God's love by Christ's love that gives a bright light into the hearts. The interpretation is based on the insight that it is God himself ‘to give the light of the knowledge of the glory of God in the Face of Christ' (2 Cor 4,6) into the believers' hearts. Any scholarly interpreter of the Christian Bible has to be aware of this presupposition. The story of the walk to Emmaus may serve as a good illustration of the specific perception offered by biblical hermeneutics. In Luke 24,13-35 the process of interpretation is taken as a communication with Jesus risen from the dead. It is he who becomes an interpreter to the two disciples before they can interpret things on their own: ‘And beginning with Moses and all the prophets, he interpreted to them in all the scriptures the things concerning himself' (24,27). Characteristically, the disciples perceive the truth of the interpretation only when Jesus gives the blessed bread to them (24,30-31.35). The experience of the true authenticity of his person has to join the interpretative words. Only after that the disciples may say from a retrospective point of view: ‘Did not our hearts burn within us while he talked to us on the road, while he opened to us the scriptures?' (24,32). Interpreting as opening the scriptures requires eyes opened by Jesus Christ or God, respectively (24,31).

Every form of interpretation in Christian theology, even scholarly exegesis, is dependent on this. The scholarly exegete also principally directs his attention towards recognizing the truth inherent in the texts entrusted to him — although this fact is not always quite evident with all his philological and historical investigations. To discover the truth of the Christian Bible — including the Old Testament — does not mean to discover immediate testimony to Christ in Old Testament texts. This would be an attempt bound to fail. Interpreting the authentic testimony of the Christian Bible means to take investigation into the texts' world seriously. Neglecting the text's historical dimension results in docetism, whereas disregarding the question concerning the truth results in religious indifference. Biblical texts should be read critically and theologically, i.e. not with a slow heart (Luke 24,25), but with a burning heart (cf. 24,32) instead. From the New Testament point of view, it is God incarnate in Jesus Christ, who sets the heart burning. He opens the scriptures (cf. 24,32), namely the Old Testament, by interpreting all scriptures (cf. 24,27) with regard to himself. This is not exegetic monomania that discovers always the same in any text. Jesus Christ being God incarnate involves himself in the texts and thus teaches to ask for God in accordance with truth. In the story of the walk to Emmaus Jesus asks the question as to suffering in accordance with truth. Everyone who reads the story about Jeremiah's suffering or the Servant's fourth song with such open eyes will perceive the tension between divine love, prophetic suffering and human sin developing in the Old Testament. Asking questions in accordance with truth perceived in the Christian Bible leads to the realization that the Servant's intercession by suffering and death on behalf of the sinful many comes very close to the idea of God's incarnation in the Servant, although this final step is not taken there. Thus, in spite of the Servant's suffering substituting for the many there is no theological re-orientation in the Old Testament leading to a fundamental identification of the Servant's suffering with God's nature and self-determination towards love and mercy.

Asking questions in accordance with truth on the basis of the Christian Bible means perceiving God's steadfast love illuminated by his incarnation in Jesus Christ as the leitmotif of all scriptures. It is the task of a Christian Bible's theology — and of an Old Testament theology being a part of it — to pay attention to this theme in the manifold forms and situations witnessed in the scriptures. It is by no means the only way to write an Old Testament theology on the basis of the Christian Bible, but it is an appropriate way to establish a fruitful synthesis of a burning heart and a critical mind formed by exegetical erudition.

SUMMARY

This article argues in favour of a conception of Old Testament theology that is aware of the different hermeneutical presuppositions due to the different canonical shapes of the Jewish and the Christian Bible, respectively. An Old Testament Theology based on the canon of the Christian Bible has to do equal justice to the Hebrew and to the Greek version of the Old Testament, acknowledging that the Greek version, the Septuagint, is a dominant factor for the emergence of Christian faith. Perceiving the Old Testament from a Christian point of view sheds new light on a central theological issue thus far underestimated in scholarly research: God's steadfast love. The contribution tries to show how this characteristic insight into God's true being is reflected and interpreted in the different parts of the Old Testament.

NOTES

^* This lecture was delivered on the occasion of the 90th anniversary of the Pontifical Biblical Institute in Rome on 6th of May 1999. This published version has been revised and completed. I should like to thank Dr. Karin Schцpflin most affectionately for undertaking the laborious task of translating the German manuscript into English.

¹ The emergence of the conflict, recent positions and my own point of view are comprehensively explained in my contribution "Die Verbindlichkeit des Alten Testaments. UnzeitgemдЯe Betrachtungen zu einem ungeliebten Thema", JBTh 12 (1997) 25-51. The literature on the subject referred to in that contribution will not be repeated here. In addition, cf. the following recent publications: H.-J. HERMISSON, "Jesus Christus als externe Mitte des Alten Testaments. Ein unzeitgemдЯes Votum zur Theologie des Alten Testaments", Jesus Christus als die Mitte der Schrift. Studien zur Hermeneutik des Evangeliums. (FS. O. Hofius [Hrsg. C. LANDMESSER – H.-J. ECKSTEIN – H. LICHTENBERGER] BZNW 86; Berlin – New York 1997) 199-233; B. JANOWSKI, "Der eine Gott der beiden Testamente. Grundfragen einer Biblischen Theologie", ZTK 95 (1998) 1-36 (= ID., Die rettende Gerechtigkeit. Beitrдge zur Theologie des Alten Testaments [Neukirchen-Vluyn 1999] II, 249-284); O. KAISER, Der Gott des Alten Testaments. Wesen und Wirken. Theologie des Alten Testaments (UTB 2024; Gцttingen 1998) II; M. KЦCKERT, "Von einem zum einzigen Gott. Zur Diskussion der Religionsgeschichte Israels", BThZ 15 (1998) 137-175; H.-P. MЬLLER, "Alttestamentliche Theologie und Religionswissenschaft", "Wer ist wie du, Herr, unter den Gцttern? (FS. O. Kaiser [Hrsg. I. KOTTSIEPER et al.] Gцttingen 1994) 20-31 (= ID., Glauben, Denken und Hoffen. Alttestamentliche Botschaften in den Auseinandersetzungen unserer Zeit [Altes Testament und Moderne 1; Mьnster 1998] 249-260); O.H. PESCH, "Schriftauslegung – kirchliche Lehre – Rezeption. Versuch einer цkumenischen Zusammenschau in Thesen", Verbindliches Zeugnis (Hrsg. T. SCHNEIDER –W. PANNENBERG) (DiKi 10; Freiburg i. Br. – Gцttingen 1998) III, 261-287;W.H. SCHMIDT, "Einsichten und Aufgaben alttestamentlicher Theologie und Hermeneutik", VF 43 (1998) 60-75; Biblische Theologie. Entwьrfe der Gegenwart (Hrsg. H. HЬBNER – B. JASPERT) (BThSt 38; Neukirchen-Vluyn 1999).

² This view has been held by R. ALBERTZ, "Religionsgeschichte Israels statt Theologie des Alten Testaments! Plдdoyer fьr eine forschungsgeschichtliche Umorientierung", JBTh 10 (1995) 3-24. His position has produced a lively debate documented in JBTh 10 (Religionsgeschichte Israels oder Theologie des Alten Testaments?) and in JBTh 12 (1997) (Biblische Hermeneutik).

³ This view is met with in the major work of B. S. CHILDS, Biblical Theology of the Old and New Testaments. Theological Reflection on the Christian Bible (London 1992).

⁴ Cf. H. FREIHERR VON CAMPENHAUSEN, Die Entstehung der christlichen Bibel (BHT 39; Tьbingen 1968); M. HARL – G. DORIVAL – O. MUNNICH, La Bible grecque des Septante. Du Judaпsme hellйnistique au Christianisme ancien (ICA; Paris 1988); E.E. ELLIS, The Old Testament in Early Christianity (WUNT 54; Tьbingen 1991); M. MЬLLER, Kirkens fшrste Bibel. Hebraica sive Graeca veritas? (Frederiksberg 1994) (Engl. transl.: The First Bible of the Church. A Plea for the Septuagint [JSOTSS 206; Sheffield 1996]); D. TROBISCH, Die Endredaktion des Neuen Testaments. Eine Untersuchung zur Entstehung der christlichen Bibel (NTOA 31; Freiburg, Schweiz – Gцttingen 1996); J.W. WEVERS, "The Interpretative Character and Significance of the Septuagint Version", Hebrew Bible / Old Testament. The History of its Interpretation (ed. M. SЖBШ) (Gцttingen 1996) I/1, 84-107; cf. the response to M. Mьller by K. JEPPESEN, "Biblia Hebraica – et Septuaginta", DTT 58 (1995) 256-266 (Danish) – SJOT 10 (1996) 271-281 (English); cf. also the contributions in Kristna tolkningar av Gamla Testamentet: bidrag frеn en Lundakonferens om kristen tolkning av Gamla testamentet, Stiftsgеrden Еkersberg,Hццr, den 26 – 27 april 1996 (ed. B. OLSSON) (Stockholm 1997).

⁵ There are different orders of the biblical scriptures in the three famous manuscripts Codex Sinaiticus, Codex Vaticanus (both 4th century) and Codex Alexandrinus (5th century). They have in common that Daniel is incorporated in the prophetic writings in order to stress their concern in predicting future developments. This intention is equally emphazied by the tendency to put the prophetic corpus in the final position of the collection of the biblical books. As this order is definitely achieved in Codex Vaticanus, it cannot be excluded that the arrangement is due to Christian influence. Since it is already documented in the list of biblical scriptures by Melito of Sardes (2nd century) and basically by Origen (3rd century), one can at least consider whether there has been a preceding Jewish tradition; the order of the Old Testament scriptures in the manuscripts mentioned above and in patristic lists can be found in H.B. SWETE, An Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek (Cambridge 1902; repr.: New York 1968) 200-214; a comprehensive presentation of the sources and the problems involved is given by M. HENGEL (in cooperation with R. Deines), "Die Septuaginta als ‘christliche Schriftensammlung', ihre Vorgeschichte und das Problem ihres Kanons", Die Septuaginta zwischen Judentum und Christentum (Hrsg. M. HENGEL – A.M. SCHWEMER) (WUNT 72; Tьbingen 1994) 182-284.

⁶ Cf. the interpretation of the context in Exod 32–34 and 19–34, respectively, by E. AURELIUS, Der Fьrbitter Israels. Eine Studie zum Mosebild im Alten Testament (CB.OT 27; Stockholm 1988) 91-126; E. ZENGER, "Wie und wozu die Tora zum Sinai kam: Literarische und theologische Beobachtungen zu Exodus 19-34", Studies in the Book of Exodus. Redaction – reception – interpretation(ed. M. VERVENNE) (BEThL 126; Leuven 1996) 265-288. The formula quoted above has been analysed and called the (enlarged) ‘formula of grace' by H. SPIECKERMANN, "‘Barmherzig und gnдdig ist der Herr...'" ZAW 102 (1990) 1-18; C. DOHMEN, "Der Sinaibund als Neuer Bund nach Ex 19-34", Der Neue Bund im Alten. Studien zur Bundestheologie der beiden Testamente (Hrsg. E. ZENGER) (QD 146; Freiburg 1993) 51-83; concerning the elements of the fomula cf. the articles in the theological dictionaries: H.J. STOEBE, "Mxr rh9m pi. sich erbarmen" THAT II, 761-768; H. SIMIAN-YOFRE – U. DAHMEN, "Mxr rh9m", TWAT VII, 460-477; H. J. STOEBE, "Nnx h9nn gnдdig sein", THAT I, 587-597; D.N. FREEDMAN – J. LUNDBOM – H.-J. FABRY, "Nnx h9a4nan", TWAT III, 23-40; E. JOHNSON, "Pna)f", TWAT I, 388-389; H.J. STOEBE, "ds·x· h9œ/sжd Gьte", THAT I, 600-621; H.-J. ZOBEL, "ds·x· h9жsжd", TWAT III, 48-71. The current debate on the appropriate understanding of dsx has been advanced by K.D. SAKENFELD, The Meaning of Hesed in the Hebrew Bible: A New Inquiry (HSM 17; Missoula 1978); E. KELLENBERGER, h9дsдd wд'^дmдt als Ausdruck einer Glaubenserfahrung (AThANT 69; Zьrich 1982); G. R. CLARK, The Word Hesed in the Hebrew Bible (JSOTSS 157; Sheffield 1993) (Lit.); in addition, cf. the surveys by J.S. KSELMAN, "Grace", ABD II, 1084-1086; K.D. SAKENFELD, "Love", ABD IV, 375-381; H. SPIECKERMANN, "Gnade/Gnade Gottes. II. Altes Testament", RGG⁴ III (forthcoming).

⁷ There is no doubt that dsx is the leading term within the formula as the enlargement of the formula of grace in Exod 34,7 is to be understood as an interpretation just of this term.

⁸ The recent discussion on Exod 34,11-26 is documented and evaluated by F.-L. HOSSFELD, "Das Privilegrecht Ex 34,11-26 in der Diskussion", Recht und Ethos im Alten Testament – Gestalt und Wirkung (FS. H. Seebass [Hrsg.S. BEYERLE – G. MAYER – H. STRAUЯ] Neukirchen-Vluyn 1999) 39-59;C. KЦRTING, Der Schall des Schofar. Israels Feste im Herbst (BZAW 285; Berlin – New York 1999) 34-38.

⁹ The formula of grace occurs in Joel 2,13; Jonah 4,2; Ps 86,15; 103,8; 145,8; Neh 9,17; references of the enlarged formula or references presupposing the enlarged formula are to be found in Exod 34,6-7; 20,5-6 = Deut 5,9-10; 7,9-10; allusions to the formula can often be assumed, but not always be proved, cf. Deut 4,31; Exod 33,19; Num 14,18; Isa 48,9; 54,7-8; 63,7; Jer 15,15; 32,18; Mic 7,18; Nah 1,2-3; Ps 78,38; 86,5; 99,8; 111,4 belonging together with 112,4; 116,5; Dan 9,4; Neh 1,5; 9,31-32; 2 Chr 30,9; Sir 2,11; 5,4-7 et al.

¹⁰ In addition, the Septuagint expands the version at the beginning of Exod 34,7 interpreting the resumed term dsx now rendered by ‘mercy': kai_ dikaiosu/nh diathrw=n kai_ poiw=n e!leoj ‘who preserves righteousness and practises mercy'. This demonstrates that the translators understood quite well the postexilic Psalter's theology where God's righteousness is indeed perceived in his dsx (cf. Ps 51,3-6; 103,17; 143,11-12; 1QS x 2-5.12-16).

¹¹ The Priestly composition adopts the central idea of the Deuteronomistic concept of the Sinai pericope and focusses the establishing of the cult predominantly on the atonement of sin. God's presence in Israel remains possible only in this manner. The theology of atonement within the Sinai pericope is the priestly variant of the Deuteronomistic theology comprising God's love, faithfulness and covenant as opposed by adultery, disloyalty and breaking of the covenant.
    The story of creation and fall in Gen 2–3 reflects the last elaboration prompted by this way of thinking. Of course, this presupposes that the text in its final form is the product of a time when the Priestly Code was already written; cf. E. OTTO, "Die Paradieserzдhlung Genesis 2–3", "Jedes Ding hat seine Zeit...". Studien zur israelitischen und altorientalischen Weisheit (FS. D. Michel [Hrsg. A. DIESEL et al.] BZAW 241; Berlin – New York 1996) 167-192; R.G. KRATZ – H. SPIECKERMANN, "Schцpfer/Schцpfung. II. Altes Testament", TRE 30, 258-283; H. SPIECKERMANN, "Ambivalenzen. Ermцglichte und verwirklichte Schцpfung in Genesis 2f", Verbindungslinien (FS. W. H. Schmidt [Hrsg. A. GRAUPNER et al.] Neukirchen-Vluyn) (forthcoming). God's loving care for men and the rise of preconscious love between the first human beings are accompanied by the Fall. Because of the Fall the fatal mixture of love and sin affects mankind from the beginning, although in terms of the theological perception the origin of betrayed love is situated at Mt. Sinai. In Gen 2–3, however, the beginning precedes the origin on purpose, at least in the final form of the Pentateuch. It appears as though God would find his original nature for the first time in meeting the alternative to preserve or to extinguish his own people at Mt. Sinai. Although there are similar situations in the primeval history requiring God's decision to preserve or to extinguish mankind, his self-determination towards love is directed towards Israel exclusively at Mt. Sinai leaving unsettled his relation towards the nations and mankind. This question is a predominant matter of debate in the prophetic writings.

¹² Cf. J. BECKER, "Die kollektive Deutung der Kцnigspsalmen", ThPh 52 (1977) 561-578, 572 (= Studien zum Messiasbild im Alten Testament [Hrsg.U. STRUPPE] [SBAB 6; Stuttgart 1989] 291-318, 308-309). It is highly probable that the passage dealing with the king would be understood in postexilic times as a coded reference to the people.
    The understanding of Nm in 61,8 causes difficulties. Many exegetical options and emendations have been brought forth, cf. the selection made by C.A. BRIGGS – E.G. BRIGGS, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Psalms (ICC; Edinburgh 1907) II, 67; G. RAVASI, Il libro dei Salmi. (Lettura della Bibbia; Bologna 1985) II, 242, n. 16. It is no more than a ‘piccolo enigma', indeed, most probably ‘et tilfжldigt Indskud i Teksten' (F. BUHL, Psalmerne. [Kjшbenhavn 1900] 405).

¹³ It is significant that the Septuagint renders the foundation of the royal throne dsxb by e)n dikaiosu/nh| ‘by righteousness' — a free but appropriate translation (cf. Prov 16,12; 25,5).

¹⁴ Although the history of these notions goes back to preexilic times, Ps 89 in its present shape should be regarded as a postexilic text (cf. M. EMMENDЦRFFER, Der ferne Gott. Untersuchung der alttestamentlichen Volksklagelieder vor dem Hintergrund der mesopotamischen Literatur [FAT 21; Tьbingen 1998] 203-239). The same applies to the similar references Ps 85,11-14 (cf. EMMENDЦRFFER, ibid., 248-251) and 97,2 (cf. J. JEREMIAS, Das Kцnigtum Gottes in den Psalmen. Israels Begegnung mit dem kanaanдischen Mythos in den Jahwe-Kцnig-Psalmen [FRLANT 141; Gцttingen 1987] 137-143).

¹⁵ Cf. Mym#h yhl) in Ezra 1,2; Neh 1,4; 2,4.

¹⁶ The Septuagint's translation of bw+ (noun and adjective) by xrhsto/j and xrhsto/thj, respectively, is not the normal one. The usual rendering is — as expected — a)gaqo/j, followed by kalo/j. The translation by xrhsto/j and xrhsto/thj, respectively, occurs predominantly in the Psalms expressing God's goodness.

¹⁷ According to the numbering of the Septuagint cf. Ps 17,51; 20,8; 22,6 (e!leoj rendering bw+ dsxw); 24,7.10; 30,8.17.22; 58,11.17.18 (ydsx yhl) rendered by o( qeo/j mou, to_ e!leo/j mou) and more than 70 other references in the Psalter alone.

¹⁸ Cf. Ps 25,6; 40,12; 51,3; 69,17; 103,4; references outside the Psalter: Isa 63,7; Jer 16,5; Hos 2,21; Zech 7,9; Lam 3,22; Dan 1,9.

¹⁹ In Ps 86,5, God's being good is interpreted as his willingness to forgive (xlsw bw+). In the immediate context, dsx-br is mentioned, supplying an additional reason to regard the whole verse as an actualization of the formula of grace quoted in 86,15. Matters are similar in Ps 145,7-9 quoting the formula of grace in a context that stresses God's universal goodness and mercy. These characterisations are supported by his righteousness towards men, i.e. bringing about deliverance and justification (cf. SPIECKERMANN, "Barmherzig und gnдdig ist der Herr...", 12, 16-17).

²⁰ Cf. H. SPIECKERMANN, Heilsgegenwart. Eine Theologie der Psalmen (FRLANT 148; Gцttingen 1989).

²¹ The introductory text Hos 1,2–2,3 (with respect to the development of the section and exegetical details cf. J. JEREMIAS, Der Prophet Hosea [ATD 24/1; Gцttingen 1983] 24-36), part of the increasingly elaborated section Hos 1–3, provides a good example of how prophetic theology can be shaped as the prophet's biography (cf. B. SEIFERT, Metaphorisches Reden von Gott im Hoseabuch [FRLANT 166; Gцttingen 1996] 92-138). Consequently, the text does not require a biographical but a theological evaluation.

²² Concerning basic exegetical issues cf. JEREMIAS, Hosea, 78-89; H. SIMIAN-YOFRE, El Desierto de los Dioses. Teologнa e Historia en el libro de Oseas (Cуrdoba 1992) 90-97. Development and intention of Hos 6,1-6 are a matter of debate that need not be resumed and settled here; cf. G.A. YEE, Composition and Tradition in the Book of Hosea (SBL.DS 102; Atlanta 1987) 174-179;W. WERNER, "Einige Anmerkungen zum Verstдndnis von Hos 6,1-6", "Wer ist wie du, HERR, unter den Gцttern?" (FS. O. Kaiser [Hrsg. I. KOTTSIEPER et al.] Gцttingen 1994) 355-372; R.G. KRATZ, "Erkenntnis Gottes im Hoseabuch", ZTK 94 (1997) 1-24, 7-13.

²³ Cf. M. KЦCKERT, "Prophetie und Geschichte im Hoseabuch", ZTK 85 (1988) 3-30, 26-30; SEIFERT, Metaphorisches Reden, 217-242.

²⁴ Cf. C. LEVIN, Die VerheiЯung des neuen Bundes (FRLANT 137; Gцttingen 1985) 235-245.

²⁵ Hos 14,5a: ‘I will heal their faithlessness; I will love them freely'(hbdn Mbh)).

²⁶ Cf. G. EIDEVALL, Grapes in the Desert. Metaphors, Models, and Themes in Hosea 4–14 (CB.OT 43; Stockholm 1996) 186-192; H. SPIECKERMANN, Jakob und der Engel in Bibel und Kunst (Zьrich 1997) 35-51.

²⁷ Cf. the different exegetical approaches of LEVIN, VerheiЯung, 11-60, 132-146; W. GROЯ, "Neuer Bund oder Erneuerter Bund. Jer 31,31-34 in der jьngsten Diskussion", Vorgeschmack. Цkumenische Bemьhungen um die Eucharistie (FS. T. Schneider [Hrsg. B. J. HILBERATH – D. SATTLER] Mainz 1995) 89-114;K. SCHMID, Buchgestalten des Jeremiabuches. Untersuchungen zur Redaktions- und Rezeptionsgeschichte von Jer 30–33 im Kontext des Buches (WMANT 72; Neukirchen-Vluyn 1996) 66-85, 107-196.

²⁸ Entering into intertextual dialogue with Hos 11,1-9 God poses himself once again the question in Jer 31,20, how things are about his relationship to his son Ephraim/Israel. God's speaking of his son in Jer 31,20 — dear son (ryqy Nb) and darling child (My(#(# dly) — emphasizes the language of love compared with Hos 11,1. God perceives rather astonished that his intention to blame his son turns out finally as his compassionate remembering his son. Whereas God pronounces in Hos 11,8-9 what he is determined to do to Ephraim/Israel, he communicates in Jer 31,20 his altered decisions and feelings towards his beloved son: remembering him in order to save him, yearning for him, having mercy on him.

²⁹ Cf. H.-J. HERMISSON, "Das vierte Gottesknechtslied im deuterojesajanischen Kontext", Der leidende Gottesknecht. Jesaja 53 und seine Wirkungsgeschichte (Hrsg. B. JANOWSKI – P. STUHLMACHER) (FAT 14; Tьbingen 1996) 1-25; B. JANOWSKI, "Er trug unsere Sьnden. Jes 53 und die Dramatik der Stellvertretung", ZTK 90 (1993) 1-24 (= Der leidende Gottesknecht. Jesaja 53 und seine Wirkungsgeschichte [Hrsg. B. JANOWSKI – P. STUHLMACHER] [FAT 14; Tьbingen 1996] 27-48); H. SPIECKERMANN, "Konzeption und Vorgeschichte des Stellvertretungsgedankens im Alten Testament", Congress Volume Cambridge 1995 (ed. J.A. EMERTON) (VTS 66; Leiden 1997) 281-295; ID., "Stellvertretung. Altes Testament", TRE 32 (forthcoming).

³⁰ Cf. O. H. STECK, "Beobachtungen zur Anlage von Jesaja 54,1-8", ZAW 101 (1989) 282-285 (= ID., Gottesknecht und Zion [FAT 4; Tьbingen 1992] 92-95); ID., "Beobachtungen zu den Zion-Texten in Jesaja 51–54", BN 46 (1989) 58-90 (= ID., Gottesknecht und Zion, 96-125).

³¹ As it is the case in Jeremiah's confessions and with his sufferings. Both times, the prophet represents God's suffering at the hands of Israel as well as Israel's suffering due to her disobedience and, consequently, Israel's suffering at the hands of the nations.

³² The substitution of the Servant's suffering and death effecting the salvation of the many touches the theological limits of the Old Testament as it is one of its fundamental presuppositions that God alone is able to rescue — nobody else. Men — kings and priests — can convey salvation by virtue of their special tasks, but certainly not by their own suffering and death. It is significant that the author of the Servant's fourth song does not attempt to combine the substitution by the Servant's suffering and death with God's love towards the many. Obviously, God's decision to accept the Servant's substitutive deed does not get beyond preliminary theological reflection. This is also true in respect of Isa 53,10. We are to understand that the Servant acts in complete accordance with God's will Cpx. But what is the innermost motivation of God's will, and what does it aim at?

³³ The construction of Isa 54,6b is understood best as ‘een irreлle vraag of een uitroep van ongeloof' (W.A.M. BEUKEN, Jesaja IIB [De Prediking van het Oude Testament; Nijkerk 1983] 252; cf. F. BUHL, Jesaja [Kшbenhavn – Kristiania 1913] 658).